Napoleon Bonaparte’s official cause of death is usually listed as stomach cancer. It is true that Napoleon had stomach cancer when he died, but there is various forensic evidence collected over the years that casts doubt on this conclusion and raises new questions. Arsenic is the main player in this century-old death investigation.

arsenic poisoning

Forensic scientists cannot conclusively prove arsenic (chemical symbol, As) poisoning in Napoleon Bonaparte’s case, however, using data obtained from various studies, a general conclusion can be inferred. In Hindmarsh and Corso’s article, “The Death of Napoleon Bonaparte: A Critical Review of the Cause,” it has been pointed out that it is not possible to differentiate arsenic levels internally vs. externally when hair is used as a sample. This is an important caveat with all the laboratory conclusions regarding the mode of Napoleon’s death.

Studies of the death of Napoleon Bonaparte

As noted in the review by Hindmarsh and Corso, much testing has been done using state-of-the-art techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, neutron activation analysis, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. All this led to contradictory results. While most studies found very high levels of arsenic in hair samples believed to have belonged to Napoleon Bonaparte, they could not agree on whether the contamination was due to chronic long-term internal exposure, chronic external exposure long-term, acute internal exposure or acute external exposure.

Natural arsenic contamination

It has been pointed out in Hindmarsh and Corso’s review that external factors, such as burning charcoal indoors or being near wallpaper that contains a green pigment called Scheele green, which leaches arsenic vapors when exposed to a humid environment, could be the reasons behind Bonaparte’s arsenic contamination. According to the article “Who Assassinated Napoleon? Probably Nobody!” by Victor Blair, Scheele’s Green is a solution of copper sulfate mixed with a solution of sodium arsenite. When these chemicals are exposed to moisture, a mold will form on the wallpaper that contains Scheele’s green pigment. This mold can convert copper arsenite pigment into a vapor called arsenic trioxide, which is highly toxic when inhaled.

Chronic exposure to arsenic

In a study conducted by the University of Milano-Bicocca and the University of Pavia using “Samples taken from Napoleon’s son in 1812, 1816, 1821 and 1826…”, all showed higher than normal arsenic levels after evaluation . This convincingly illustrates that there was a source of arsenic exposure in the family and raises the possibility that Napoleon was not poisoned by arsenic, but was exposed to the chemical throughout his life.

autopsy pathology

Copies of the original autopsy survived and one written by Francesco Antommarchi, an anatomist and pathologist, noted that “Almost all the rest of the internal surface of the stomach was occupied by a cancerous ulcer, the center of which was at the top, along the little curve of the stomach…”. This seems conclusive, except that Napoleon was considered “fat” at the time, a characteristic that is not consistent with death from stomach cancer.

Cause of Napoleon’s death

All post-mortem investigations have serious limitations. For example, the hair samples may not have been from Napoleon’s children and the arsenic levels may have contaminated the body of any kind after death. Also, the idea that Napoleon was “fat” might have been left over from his precancerous days. There was absolutely no verified chain of custody of the samples, making any conclusion unacceptable in today’s courtroom. Therefore, the cause of death remains inconclusive.

Mind-altering drugs, murder and ignorance

Could Napoleon have been assassinated? Could he have been self-medicating due to high levels of pain? In the article titled “Was Napoleon an Addict?” by Bob Elmer, the possibility of using arsenic as a recreational drug is described as highly probable. Additionally, the article claims that Napoleon was being treated with a mixture of calomel and horchata, two chemicals that can mix with stomach acids to produce mercuric cyanide.

There is no way to state with 100% accuracy that Napoleon was assassinated, died of natural causes, or overdosed on dangerous recreational drugs, but one thing remains true; There is enough evidence to ensure that forensic science classes for many years will keep this essay question on the exam.